Post by Christopher Martin on Oct 6, 2016 19:16:37 GMT
THE GROWTH OF EMPIRE (264-133BC)
Across the Mediterranean Sea, Carthage had shared friendly treaties with Rome as far back as 509 BC, but as Rome grew more powerful, she came into more frequent contact with Carthage. Tensions developed for two reasons: First, Romans felt themselves destined to be the masters of the civilized world, and Carthage's massive merchant fleet represented a significant competitor to Roman trade in the Mediterranean. Second, Romans felt themselves superior in virtue to the Carthaginians, who were ruled by an oligarchy of merchants who's greed represented an intolerable offense (in other words, that an impious people could thrive/survive was itself an affront to Romans, who attributed much of their success to Roman virtue).
THE FIRST PUNIC WAR
The clash finally came in 264, when the city of Messina appealed to Rome for help against Carthage. Knowing the significance of the issue, the Senate deferred the decision of war to the Assembly of the people, who voted for war. Knowing the strength of Carthage was in its navy, the Romans knew that they finally had to build a navy (they had no navy at all up to that point!). They copied a captured Carthaginian ship, adding a corvus, a bridge with a spike attached to it. When close to a Carthaginian ship, the corvus would crash down upon it, linking the two ships, and turning the conflict into something of a land battle (the Romans excelled at land fighting).
-the result was a smashing sea victory near Mylae in 259BC, but the fruits were lost during an invasion of Africa, where in 255BC the Roman army and navy were destroyed.
-at immense cost, the Romans constructed another navy, and routed the Carthaginians off of the Agate Islands in 241BC. In the ensuing treaty, Carthage turned over Sicily to Rome. Victory in the First Punic War announced Rome's power as both a sea and land power.
THE SECOND PUNIC WAR
Defeat had stung many Carthaginians, including the general Hamilcar Barca, who forced his son Hannibal (just a boy at the time, 229BC) to swear a blood oath against Rome. After having built up a strong series of settlements to expand the Carthaginian empire in Spain, Hannibal invaded Italy in 218BC. It was something of epic proportions: Hannibal brought with him over 90,000 troops, and over 12,000 cavalry, included a significant number of elephants . . . all of these in a brutal march over the Alps into Italy!
-The campaign in Italy proved disastrous for the Romans, culminating in one of the most iconic demonstrations of generalship of all time when Hannibal defeated a Roman army twice the size of his at the battle of Cannae in 216BC.
-Rome responded by invading North Africa, where Publius Cornelius Scipio won a string of victories, earning both the name Scipio Africanus, and Hannibal's recall to North Africa to protect Carthage. Scipio won a thunderous victory over Hannibal at Zama in 202BC, spelling Carthage's defeat in the Second Punic War. Carthage was forced to give up all of its holdings (including Spain) except for North Africa, spelling the end of Carthage's imperial ambitions, and making Rome the uncontested superpower of the Mediterranean.
THE THIRD PUNIC WAR
The final punic war was largely the result of hawkish senators like Cato the Censor who railed against Carthage, and called for it to be destroyed. They felt that, despite being weakened, the mere existence of Carthage posed a threat to Rome. Cato finally prevailed when in 149BC, Carthage technically broke its treaty with Rome by declaring war against neighboring Numidia.
Rome sent an army to Africa, and soon they were besieging Carthage. After two years of stalemate, the Scipio Aemilianus (later known as Scipio the Younger) was given command, and he led a successful assault on the city in 146BC. The remaining 50,000 Carthaginian citizens were sold into slavery, and the ground was sowed with salt.
As 146 also marked Rome's victory over Philip V of Macedon, Rome's empire now stretched over the entire Mediterranean, completely uncontested.
THE ORATORS
CATO THE CENSOR
M. Porcius Cato (234-149BC, Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor) was an austere leader of the Roman Republic known for coming into conflict with his contemporary, the more flamboyant Scipio Africanus, winner of the Second Punic War.
Cato (the Younger) is the name of one of Julius Caesar's staunchest opponents. Cato the Elder is his ancestor.
Cato the Elder served in the military, especially in Greece and Spain. He boasted that he conquered more Spanish cities than he spent days in the country. He entered the cursus honorum as a new man (novus homo) who attained the top positions of consul and censor.
Cato the Elder despised luxury, especially of the Greek variety his enemy Scipio favored. Cato also disapproved of Scipio's leniency towards the Carthaginians at the conclusion of the Second Punic War.
Cato the Elder was responsible for the saying that Carthage must be destroyed, which was made in connection with the Third Punic War.
CICERO AND CATILINE
Around 63BC, Rome saw a significant decrease in trade and the resulting loss of tax revenue resulted in an increase in debt among many of the more affluent Romans. Unemployment in the city was high. The Roman Senate stood silent, unable or unwilling to come to a solution. The people longed for a hero, namely the ever-popular Pompey, to return and bring a remedy. In the meantime, however, there was serious - or so it appeared - unrest, an unrest that led to a conspiracy, a supposed conspiracy that threatened not only the lives of the people who lived within the walls of Rome but also the city itself.
At the center of this turmoil were two men - Lucius Sirgius Catiline and Marcus Tullius Cicero. Catiline was a near bankrupt aristocrat, while Cicero, his most outspoken adversary, was a renowned orator and statesman as well as a philosopher and poet. Catiline was from a distinguished patrician family - his great-grandfather had fought against Hannibal in the Second Punic War - whereas Cicero came from a wealthy landed family outside Rome, Arpinum, a small city southeast of the capital. He had had a brilliant career in law where he was able to use his famed skills as an orator. It was said that people would stop what they were doing to hear Cicero speak.
It was said that people would stop what they were doing to hear Cicero's famed skills as an orator.
The two men clashed after Cicero uncovered a plot, a plot conceived by Catiline, that called for the assassination of several elected officials and the burning of the city itself. The purpose of this supposed assault on the city, or so it was later revealed, would be the elimination of debt for all --- the poor as well as the wealthy (Catiline included). Some believe that the resulting chaos would also allow Catiline to assume the leadership role he so passionately desired. The uncovering of the conspiracy would bring what historian Mary Beard in her book SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome called a clash between “ideology and ambition.” The discovery of the alleged conspiracy would be the pinnacle of Cicero’s long distinguished career in politics. It would bring him praise from some but condemnation from others.
Across the Mediterranean Sea, Carthage had shared friendly treaties with Rome as far back as 509 BC, but as Rome grew more powerful, she came into more frequent contact with Carthage. Tensions developed for two reasons: First, Romans felt themselves destined to be the masters of the civilized world, and Carthage's massive merchant fleet represented a significant competitor to Roman trade in the Mediterranean. Second, Romans felt themselves superior in virtue to the Carthaginians, who were ruled by an oligarchy of merchants who's greed represented an intolerable offense (in other words, that an impious people could thrive/survive was itself an affront to Romans, who attributed much of their success to Roman virtue).
THE FIRST PUNIC WAR
The clash finally came in 264, when the city of Messina appealed to Rome for help against Carthage. Knowing the significance of the issue, the Senate deferred the decision of war to the Assembly of the people, who voted for war. Knowing the strength of Carthage was in its navy, the Romans knew that they finally had to build a navy (they had no navy at all up to that point!). They copied a captured Carthaginian ship, adding a corvus, a bridge with a spike attached to it. When close to a Carthaginian ship, the corvus would crash down upon it, linking the two ships, and turning the conflict into something of a land battle (the Romans excelled at land fighting).
-the result was a smashing sea victory near Mylae in 259BC, but the fruits were lost during an invasion of Africa, where in 255BC the Roman army and navy were destroyed.
-at immense cost, the Romans constructed another navy, and routed the Carthaginians off of the Agate Islands in 241BC. In the ensuing treaty, Carthage turned over Sicily to Rome. Victory in the First Punic War announced Rome's power as both a sea and land power.
THE SECOND PUNIC WAR
Defeat had stung many Carthaginians, including the general Hamilcar Barca, who forced his son Hannibal (just a boy at the time, 229BC) to swear a blood oath against Rome. After having built up a strong series of settlements to expand the Carthaginian empire in Spain, Hannibal invaded Italy in 218BC. It was something of epic proportions: Hannibal brought with him over 90,000 troops, and over 12,000 cavalry, included a significant number of elephants . . . all of these in a brutal march over the Alps into Italy!
-The campaign in Italy proved disastrous for the Romans, culminating in one of the most iconic demonstrations of generalship of all time when Hannibal defeated a Roman army twice the size of his at the battle of Cannae in 216BC.
-Rome responded by invading North Africa, where Publius Cornelius Scipio won a string of victories, earning both the name Scipio Africanus, and Hannibal's recall to North Africa to protect Carthage. Scipio won a thunderous victory over Hannibal at Zama in 202BC, spelling Carthage's defeat in the Second Punic War. Carthage was forced to give up all of its holdings (including Spain) except for North Africa, spelling the end of Carthage's imperial ambitions, and making Rome the uncontested superpower of the Mediterranean.
THE THIRD PUNIC WAR
The final punic war was largely the result of hawkish senators like Cato the Censor who railed against Carthage, and called for it to be destroyed. They felt that, despite being weakened, the mere existence of Carthage posed a threat to Rome. Cato finally prevailed when in 149BC, Carthage technically broke its treaty with Rome by declaring war against neighboring Numidia.
Rome sent an army to Africa, and soon they were besieging Carthage. After two years of stalemate, the Scipio Aemilianus (later known as Scipio the Younger) was given command, and he led a successful assault on the city in 146BC. The remaining 50,000 Carthaginian citizens were sold into slavery, and the ground was sowed with salt.
As 146 also marked Rome's victory over Philip V of Macedon, Rome's empire now stretched over the entire Mediterranean, completely uncontested.
THE ORATORS
CATO THE CENSOR
M. Porcius Cato (234-149BC, Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor) was an austere leader of the Roman Republic known for coming into conflict with his contemporary, the more flamboyant Scipio Africanus, winner of the Second Punic War.
Cato (the Younger) is the name of one of Julius Caesar's staunchest opponents. Cato the Elder is his ancestor.
Cato the Elder served in the military, especially in Greece and Spain. He boasted that he conquered more Spanish cities than he spent days in the country. He entered the cursus honorum as a new man (novus homo) who attained the top positions of consul and censor.
Cato the Elder despised luxury, especially of the Greek variety his enemy Scipio favored. Cato also disapproved of Scipio's leniency towards the Carthaginians at the conclusion of the Second Punic War.
Cato the Elder was responsible for the saying that Carthage must be destroyed, which was made in connection with the Third Punic War.
CICERO AND CATILINE
Around 63BC, Rome saw a significant decrease in trade and the resulting loss of tax revenue resulted in an increase in debt among many of the more affluent Romans. Unemployment in the city was high. The Roman Senate stood silent, unable or unwilling to come to a solution. The people longed for a hero, namely the ever-popular Pompey, to return and bring a remedy. In the meantime, however, there was serious - or so it appeared - unrest, an unrest that led to a conspiracy, a supposed conspiracy that threatened not only the lives of the people who lived within the walls of Rome but also the city itself.
At the center of this turmoil were two men - Lucius Sirgius Catiline and Marcus Tullius Cicero. Catiline was a near bankrupt aristocrat, while Cicero, his most outspoken adversary, was a renowned orator and statesman as well as a philosopher and poet. Catiline was from a distinguished patrician family - his great-grandfather had fought against Hannibal in the Second Punic War - whereas Cicero came from a wealthy landed family outside Rome, Arpinum, a small city southeast of the capital. He had had a brilliant career in law where he was able to use his famed skills as an orator. It was said that people would stop what they were doing to hear Cicero speak.
It was said that people would stop what they were doing to hear Cicero's famed skills as an orator.
The two men clashed after Cicero uncovered a plot, a plot conceived by Catiline, that called for the assassination of several elected officials and the burning of the city itself. The purpose of this supposed assault on the city, or so it was later revealed, would be the elimination of debt for all --- the poor as well as the wealthy (Catiline included). Some believe that the resulting chaos would also allow Catiline to assume the leadership role he so passionately desired. The uncovering of the conspiracy would bring what historian Mary Beard in her book SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome called a clash between “ideology and ambition.” The discovery of the alleged conspiracy would be the pinnacle of Cicero’s long distinguished career in politics. It would bring him praise from some but condemnation from others.